“ A new alliance, environnemental tourisme and cultural landscape”.


 “Landscape and Imagination, Towards a new baseline for education in a changing world. Paysage et Invention. Evolution des enseignements dans un monde en transition.»

A new alliance, environnemental tourisme and cultural landscape”.

UNISCAPE, 2013. Bandecchi&Vivaldi, Florence ISBN 978-88-8341-548-7

 

Landscape & Imagination

A new alliance, environnemental tourisme and cultural landscape ”

António dos Santos  Queirós

Philosophy Center. Lisbon University

 

Centro de Filosofia. Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Lisboa.

Alameda da Universidade
1600-214 Lisboa
Portugal


Abstract
Concepts and categories:
The concept of paradigm and the rising of a new landscape paradigm. Two methodological roads: negative heuristics and positive heuristics.
A universal and globalised anthropocentric action transformed the wild landscape in cultural landscape. Écoumène and trajection.
Peasant ethics: Enlarging Land Community concept and Animal Ethics.
The UN Stockholm Conference principles and the environmental consciousness.
Extending the concept of landscape in several dimensions
The environmental reason. Ethics and Morality. The philosophical approach of the Environmental Philosophy. The two principles, the critique of anthropocentrism, and the critique of ethnocentrism, create a new ethical theory.
From the conservationist Nature paradigm to the concepts of environment and sustainable development.
Tourism economy: the changing of the paradigm. Landscape Ecology and Metaphysics of landscape. Parallel –Aesthetic Categories. Mass tourism versus ecotourism, the controversy. A new educated and cultured middle. A new alliance, environnemental tourisme and cultural landscape.
Keywords: Paradigm. Landscape. Environmental. Ethics. Environmental reason. Ecology. Metaphysics.
1        Introduction
. The general definition of paradigm comprises "a disciplinary matrix", a constellation of beliefs, values and techniques shared by a Community.
The existence of an environmental heritage recognized by the contribution of the different sciences leads us to the concept of “landscape ecology” and, simultaneously, the recognition of another intangible heritage translates into “metaphysics of landscape”, two concepts that are extremely important to define the new tourism paradigm, the Environmental Tourism: Nature Tourism and Cultural Tourism, with Rural Tourism, shaped in the cultural landscape.
In this paper we will use the two methodological, a negative heuristics, and a positive heuristic, revisiting those concepts within the framework of sustainable development and Environmental Philosophy is the itinerary of our exposition.
2 The environmental reason
If the object of science is to explain the world machinery, then scientific laws are amoral, and the answer to the categorical imperative of "how to live in the world” belongs to the domain of philosophy and of ethics. It’s in this sense that the environmental ethics questions the value of science and the value of social development, not only in an anthropocentric dimension but also according to and beyond modern science: Life before Man and Earth before Life.
As in the philosophy of Spinoza, which opened the “universe of reason”, the fundamental pushes for environmental philosophy reflect the ethical and moral issues.
2.1 Ethics and Morality. The philosophical approach
We return to the main questions that Bento de Spinoza's work placed on the advent of our modernity: how to think about the rational explanation of the existence of man and the universe, how to adapt the philosophical thinking to the raison d' être of everything that exists and how to transform the spiritual life in full understanding and peaceful enjoyment of life itself to the limit?
The struggle to distinguish ethics from morality such as, normative ethics (what we ought to do) from philosophical or meta-ethics (what is the nature of good), cannot be exceptionally simple. If normative ethics are something the general public may call "ethics" and meta-ethics may be what the common sense notion of morality is.....this happens in the framework of the anthropocentrism!
Morality is a cultural expression determined by social domination and historical context, which gives it a sectary character. We need a moral theory that can be universal, timeless and that is able to guide the individual conduct, science and political ideologies, without considering the man in the zenith of Life.
However, in the last century, moral reflection has turned itself to a new object: the environment
The focal point in the development of the environmental consciousness in the modern world, there was the UN environmental conferences.
Some principles emerged from the first conference, held in Stockholm in 1972: the principle of a “common house” "… man has two homelands, his own and planet Earth"; the principle of a planetary Community and solidarity, founders of a new international order (ethics) and the principle of defending life on the planet and its biodiversity. (UNCHE 1972).
Those principles build a first line with the cultural and political perspective of ethnocentrism.
The critical perspective of environment philosophy toward the ethnocentrism claims the following: "Ethnocentrism is an emotionally conditioned approach that considers and judges other societies by their own culture’s criteria. It’s easy to see that this attitude leads to contempt and hate of all ways of life that are different from that of the observer. " (Dias, 1961)
The critique of ethnocentrism not only justifies the respect for all national cultures and all forms of classical and popular cultural expression, but also rejects any notion of superiority from a certain model of society, race or ethnicity. In this sense, it expands the concept of products of cultural goods far beyond the great museums, master oeuvres, classic heritage… including cultural landscape.
Biocentrism (Earth first!, Greenpeace, Wilderness Society, ...) assigns an intrinsic value to any living entity and Aldo Leopold’s Ecocentrism focuses on our duty towards the biotic community, which we are part of (Larrère, 2007). This isn’t about applying pre-existing moral theories to new objects, such as nature. Nature shall be included in our field of moral reflection, our duties, which were previously limited to human beings, and will now be extended to other natural beings - the concept of an enlarged community of natural beings. This is the perspective of the critique to the anthropocentrism.
The "environmentalist reason" formulates a new categorical imperative for human action, beyond the Kant maximum of forming individual ethics of acts with the principle of a universal law, a new ethical framework, which stems from the need to configure the human conduct within the limits that safeguard the continuity of life and its diversity (Hans Jonas).
However scientific discoveries only allow us to be sure that the balance of ecosystems favourable to life depends on a multitude of physical, biological and geological factors and recognize that the higher the position occupied by organisms in the food chain, the more vulnerable they will be, as well as some species, whose destruction would dramatically affect the entire system.
What today is dramatic, is the rhythm at which biodiversity is being lost, the destruction of natural resources, energy and the multiplication of polluting effects that reach not only the whole lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the atmosphere and the biosphere, but also, with unpredictable consequences, the fundamental genetic material, the DNA, which conserves and reproduces the codes of life.
If we consider the emergence of our ancestors of the human species from 4 to 5 million years ago, inside the framework of the biological time, which is immense, nothing can assure that, as happened to the dinosaurs in the past (sixty-five million years ago), the kingdom of mammals won't come to an end one day and other forms of more adapted life will continue to perpetuate the music of life in the sidereal spaces.
However, imagine the extinction of Homo sapiens sapiens and species associated with our evolution, a world of plants, microbes and insects, would unlikely give rise again to the human species or even to mammals.
In this perspective, nobody can imagine today what will be the link in the chain of life where the evolutionary leap will occur, as nobody dreamt before that the grandfather of our human condition was an insignificant rodent that survived the widespread extinction of dominant species at the end of the Mesozoic Era (67 million years ago). But, at the same time, the preservation of the human being returns to the centre of environmental ethics, in a new ethical perspective, without unlimited domain and  privileges against “the other” nature (critique of anthropocentrism)..
To be coherent with this environmental ethical perspective, we must consider that the multiple links between all forms of life (and even those within the non-biotic environment), require, in addition to the duty of preserving our species, a duty of conserving the diversity of beings and their environmental niches, since everything depends on their dynamic equilibrium, as in the Aldo Leopold (1947) biotic pyramid.
3.  From the conservationist Nature paradigm to the concepts of environment and sustainable development
The acknowledgment of the economic value of using biodiversity is still a way to refuse the autonomous land ethic values. “The land-relation is still strictly economic, entailing privileges but not obligations. “(Leopold, 1947)
This usually leads to confining nature conservation to parks and reserves, to the species potentially useful to humans and to the action of the State, giving complete freedom to private enterprise. This comes from the scientifically false premise that the elements with economic value of the biotope can exist in nature without the presence of other elements.
This is the scientific base of ecological consciousness - to recognize the “duties towards nature”.
“A land ethic then reflects the existence of an ecological conscience, and this in turn reflects a conviction of individual responsibility for the health of the land. Health is the capacity of the land for self-renewal. Conservation is our effort to understand and preserve the capacity.” (Leopold, 1947: 258).
3.1 Tourism economy: the changing of the paradigm
Up to what point can the idea of landscape serve the in­tentions of sustainable development, and in what forms? What might be the conditions for a possible encounter between the concepts of landscape and sustainable de­velopment that neither uses nor reduces one at the ex­pense of the other or vice-versa?
This new vision of the landscape, multi and interdisciplinary, which is at the same time an instrument operating its hermeneutics and a category in the field of Environmental Philosophy, is named: “Landscape ecology (humanized). In our definition it represents a structural and systemic view that encompasses the large natural landscape, characterized and differentiated not only by the various fields of science (environmental sciences and exact sciences), but also because it was created with the help of Man in his daily effort as a farmer, a shepherd and a landscape architect.” (Queirós, 2003)
The Natural history, served by the Earth Sciences, Geology and Geomorphology in particular, reveals the diversity of geological heritage and its natural monuments.
Life sciences, especially biology and botany, teach us the size and value of biodiversity, and also the value of new biotopes created by the humanization of the landscape.
Social History in its archaeological and artistic valences, and ethnography, allow us to take advantage of the built heritage, works of art and literature, as well as ethnographic objects.
And when we discuss these, we can’t forget their immaterial size.
Metaphysics of landscape represents the domain of aesthetic emotions and feelings and their cultural representations.
Ecotourism is about conserving the “natural areas”, which improve the well-being of the locals. According to this perspective, we continue following the field of the anthropocentrism. But, what is the definition of “natural areas?” When every landscape is as cultural landscape!?
The concept of “tourist industry” has led to search for local resources - biological and geological, livestock and forestry, etc. as their basic material. In fact the first are used and processed by other industries, and in many cases require its conservation. And as for the second, its consumption is shared between residents and travellers.
What constitutes a tourist resource is a humanized cultural landscape. Reading and interpretation of the cultural landscape is the basis for the creation of the tourist product and its first metamorphosis of value. It’s the ecology of the landscape (material heritage) and its metaphysics (immaterial heritage), which constitute the essence of tourist resource, but only when their interpretation and reading gives it a new increase in cultural and economic value.
The landscape is not an open book, intelligible empirically. The transformation into a tourist product goes through its readability, which gives it a used value; it’s a metamorphosis that generates economy value, and it’s also a process of cultural literacy, mediated by the construction of a language for tourist communication; the result of this process changes the shape and the essence of traditional concepts of resources and tourist products.
3.1.1 Parallel –Aesthetic Categories
We can reference in the landscape a set of categories that we call “parallel-aesthetics”, carrying an intrinsic moral value and touristic attraction capacity: "the unique", setting this concept as susceptible to express the landscape attributes of an uncommon Place. "The single” defining the own identity of a common landscape object. "The authentic” attribute applicable to the conservation of objects and original landscape contexts. "The genuine and rare", objects and Places of Humanized landscape, that in its process of evolution tend to the disappearance or corruption…
And differentiate them from “Systemic Parallel-Aesthetics Categories”.
The discontinuity of forest stands and the sustainability of agro-forestry “Mosaic” are supported by mountain terraces, with an amazing hydrological systematization: erosion control, drainage and reduced dispersion of full tips. Here we can find the use of the traditional culture and the simplified use of the land: the polyculture and permanent pasture, terraces with trench irrigation and drainage ditches, the walls supporting the land, winning against the slopes. Also, this is helped by the use of the sheep’s herding and the use of manure from their beds to fertilize the fields
Prados de lima”, the drought irrigation system in the winter, with pressure refills of aquifers and summer irrigation.
"The Bocage landscape ", concept shaped from the French Bois, a continuous hedge. With woods at the top of the slope, live fences and lines of trees linking plaids and armed pasture wisely under the slope lines, without supporting walls.
"The Oak and the river forest", that preserving the traditional agriculture, it is a privileged place to avifauna observation.
"The Water Gardens", landscape places covering rivers and streams beds.
"Moss- Gardens": micro-flora and micro-fauna.
....
The landscape has become the sediment of life and death of all beings, from the non biotic and biotic community, crossing their cycle of birth and death recycle and reutilize.

3.1.2 Mass tourism versus ecotourism, the controversy
The debate among ecotourism and its critics (Butcher, 2011), has initially been focused on opposing mass tourism to ecotourism, identifying a small niche of customers, with limited financial size and market needs. Another argument, in moral and politic dimensions, is the choice of local people not for the  artisan and natural side, but to choose freely new productive technologies, infrastructures, jobs and commodities…
The democratization and socialization of education and culture, as well as the evolution of big markets around the world solved some of the opposing issues: Cultural Tourism has become a mass tourism.
3.1.3 A new educated and cultured middle class that is changing social taste
The weight of this middle class and its instruction and cultural level, in parallel with the emancipation of the working woman, a contemporary youth increasingly educated and the anticipation of an active retirement in segments of the middle class, generated a change in the social weight of this class and in the categories of "taste" and travelling “motivation”.
The modern social taste of the middle class includes a new global concept about Art and Aesthetics. New moral and ethic values face nature, heritage, environment and landscape, by influence of the Environmental Philosophy in every scientific domain and development process.
3.1.4 A new alliance, environnemental tourisme and cultural landscape
The growth of competitiveness in the tourism economy will be sought particularly through the ability to integrate Circuits and Routes in all patrimonies, which gradually will link the current urban attraction poles to dynamic regional visits, inter-regional and even cross-border. With these Routes and Circuits we can promote the upgrading of the economical status of excursionist to the status of tourist, increasing the time spent in certain places and the desire or need to return to them. This will help surpass the seasonality and promote a quality consumption, which will increase productivity.
The Routes and Circuits will be integrated in their destinations. These destinations will generate the main profit, but they will not be the structures that organize these Routes and Circuits (the museums, monuments and parks) to collect the greatest profit; the profit from tourism will come from the aforementioned external Value Chains (Accommodation for visitors, restaurants, transports and so one). The misunderstanding of this economic paradox is the cause of the historical conflict between tourism and development, but is also at the same time the key to overcome it. This is important particularly in our time, in which a new paradigm of tourism is emerging - environmental tourism, which means cultural tourism, nature tourism, and rural tourism, with their specific products and renewed environmental sustainability requirements, for all other tourist products.
To achieve the “Good employ of Nature” we need to apply a new ethical perspective to the economical and financial world, and to the political categories.
3.1.5 “Terroir” and cultural landscape
The expansion of the human species by all regions of the globe and its adaptation to the diversity of habitats in the modern age has spawned a new relationship between humanity and nature: it ceased to exist as pure natural countryside and the whole landscape has become what it is by direct or indirect influence of human activity, producing either unspeakable destruction or new cultural landscapes. The moral and ethical reflection emerges from those issues.
Nowadays, ecology and landscape aesthetics depend even more from the labour of farmers and peasants, if we aspire to a full conservation of the landscape ecology and its aesthetic; with more and more people leaving the countryside, innumerable biotopes, which are the result from the interaction of human action with the original biodiversity, will be lost. With its ruin and emigration, the risk of it disappearing from many cultural landscapes can become a reality.  
Augustin Berque (1993), has developed philosophical theories about European and Japanese human societies and space/landscape/nature, and established a unique academic concept, Écoumène, introducing a new concept called trajection, which means the interactive relationship between culture and nature, the collective and the individual, and the subjectivity and the objectivity in actual societies in Europe and in Japan. The landscape concept, born in 4th century China and in the centuries of the Western Renaissance, encompasses a collective sensitive and symbolic cultural subjectivity from the higher classes, engaged in an aesthetical contemplation and different from the perception of the peasants, which occupy and transform the land as part of their daily struggle. (Filosofia da Paisagem, 2012).
But, when we discuss the cultural landscape concept, we can’t forget their immaterial size, which can be found in the erudite and popular imagination and in their creative expressions in literature, dance, philosophy, music...
A moral vision about landscape is included.
3.1.6 Peasant ethics: Enlarging Land Community concept and Animal Ethics
The Iberian peasant culture in the first half of XX century, maintained in the relationships with the land, the animals, the humanized landscape, customs and in magical and religious imagery, an age-old ethics that the struggle for survival and the empirical knowledge of life shaped contradictorily.
Ethical dilemmas: The “fojos”, or wolf traps, dating back to prehistoric times, allowed the systematic extermination of wolf packs, but the pregnant females were banned to hunters; the large birds of prey, such as gryphon’s, true health agents that cleaned the mountains of corpses and sick animals were respected, but smaller ones such as buzzards, accused of preying on the chicken coops, were exterminated in their nests.
The rural community and the urban alienation: the proximity between neighbors, as between the breeder and consumer of animals, when subsistence economies resisted even the capitalist globalization market, led to the permanence of social solidarity and links of affection with the animals, today totally unheard of by city dwellers who barely know their condominium partners and who consume the iconized flesh (hamburger, hot-dog etc.) from completely unknown animals.
Moral dualities, Celebration-Mourning-Sacred-Profane: Paradigms of those lost (and contradictory) ties of affection are, for example, the social sharing of the pain of death, or the joy of marriage with the funeral rituals and memorial service, or the offering of sweetmeats to neighbors. It is the tears of the woman who bred the pig when it is taken to be killed, even knowing that this sacrifice is essential for the family livelihood and the handing over of that task to an expert outside the family, called in to carry out the fatal incision. It is the songs of encouragement to the oxen when tilling the ground and the fresh grass cut daily for the farm animals… but also the use of the whip and the goad only when there is no other means of driving the animal. The processes of domestication led to an empirical animal ethic which modern production disdains completely.
Practical ethics, ethical precepts and moral action: the rule of feeding first the domestic animals and then serving the supper to the family; the practice of raising animals in large compounds, allowing them to use these spaces according their needs and biological rhythms, of feeding, mating and moving around; the duty to help in the birth of young animals and assist them when travelling long distances; the care in renewing the straw in the animal’s sleeping quarters regularly; the cleaning, care and affection, rendered to the working animals every day; the preoccupation with the well-being of aged or frail animals, which no longer earn their keep; the mercy killing of seriously ill or wounded animals, in order to put an end to their suffering ...all concrete examples, among many others, of these immanent ethics.
Affection and community memory: in fact, it is not only strictly economic reasons or functional pragmatism that explains the secular creation of these practices. Animals have communication codes and affective responses that interact with humane treatment. And it is this affective capital, entwined in memories and attitudes of the collective consciousness of rural communities, which has been handed down from generation to generation.
Ethical transcendence: ethical transcendence of these facts is stamped on the mind and it is not just to meet the religious imperative that the old enemy takes off his hat at the passing of a funeral and the hardened peasant, on burying his dog, is unable to hide the feelings of grief.
Comparative ethics, amorality and indifference: the mechanization of anonymous city life with its consumer practices and the massive urbanization of rural areas has resulted not only in the decrease of the biogenetic heritage of the open spaces but also in the decline of secular ethic heritage, favouring amorality and indifference at this century’s end.
Arnold Berleant's (2004) approach to environmental aesthetics considers the human being as an active contributor in a context where it is a continuous participant, distancing himself from the Kantian perspective of a contemplative subject and a contemplative object. A person is the perceptual centre, both as an individual and as a member of a socio-cultural group, of his or her life-world, whose horizons are shaped by geographical and cultural factors.( Filosofia da Paisagem, 2012)
In their aesthetical perspective, the concept of landscape can be reduced to a visual direction and includes several dimensions: admiring the landscape embraces the tactile appeal, the kinaesthetic pleasure, the natural songs, the taste... These rich dimensions are forsaken when admiring the landscape and are relevant to cultural tourism and nature tourism. “The concept of landscape has had to be stretched in many directions: from an object to an area, from a visual experience to a multi-sensory one, from natural scenery to the whole range of human-made transformations of nature. This expansion of the idea of landscape is further complicated by the fact that landscapes are never stationary but are constantly in transition.” (Berleant, 2011)
Re-thinking landscape means that every landscape is a human artefact: the historical human presence brings value to the landscape, not only the positive categories of the beauty experiences in nature but also the negative sublime, to recognize “if such practices also offend our sensibility; that is, they have aesthetic as well as moral consequences”. (Berleant, 2011).
It isn’t the end of nature or the end of wilderness! The geodiversity and biodiversity of the land- the cultural landscape - are dynamic and dialectic. The natural process of recycling and metamorphosis remains universal in the urban and rural land.
But the knowledge of the landscape humanization, from the perspective of the philosophy of nature and the environment philosophy, would be incomplete without the use of another category of elements, which we define as:
“Metaphysics of landscape. It represents the domain of the "spirituality", "soul" of things, the categories of aesthetic emotions and feelings, "beauty" and "beautiful", the "sublime", "wonderful" and "mysterious", “monumental”, "epic" and "tragic." (Queirós, 2003). All this categories can be linked with wilderness but also with the human labour in the land. Including the negative categories: the disgusting, the ugly, the repulsive, the abhorrent...
We can talk about the “irrationalism” of environmental ethics (Ferry, 1992), but in reality, we should talk about an environmental reason.
4.  New kinds of governance that combine several ecosystem services
The result of this process changes the shape and the essence of traditional concepts of landscape as economic and cultural product resource (material and immaterial), and puts the question of the ethics of duty to preserve the cultural landscape, by its double economic value and aesthetic.
The cultural landscape, built by the peasants, shepherds and foresters, give them, beyond commodities, an additional aesthetic and cultural value as tourist attraction.
But also, cultural landscape combines several ecosystem services:
Sustainability of agriculture, silviculture and pastoral mosaic - soil improvement, groundwater recharge, renewable energy sources, carbon-sink
Public health and safety in production / functional food (healthy)
Multifunctional rural areas/ conservation and valorisation of intangible and tangible heritage of bio and geodiversity.
The cultural landscape needs measures and funds to avoid environmental risks such as - soil erosion, desertification and drought, forest fires, water scarcity resulting from climate change must be reinforced 
Consequently, the new CAP must recognize the need to strengthen the environmental and landscape issues by supporting the management of "land". The CAP should promote the competitiveness of agriculture in the context of ecological transition of its economy and therefore allow recognizing the irreducible diversity and intrinsic values of different cultural landscapes from the North to the South of Europe.
5  Conclusions
The main terms, such Culture, Nature, Environment and Landscape, as “milieu” and Heritage are far from being neutral scientific objects. They are academic constructions which need to be understood as they emerge across their historic contexts.
The general definition of paradigm comprises "a disciplinary matrix", a constellation of beliefs, values and techniques shared by a Community (Kuhn, 1962). The presence of some anomalies is not enough to abandon the previous paradigm. This happens only when, in the context of the phenomenological study, you can observe multiple, unexplained or unexpected events and when a rival paradigm emerges. This doesn't happen suddenly.
In this paper we use the two methodological routes identified by Lakatos (1970), a negative heuristics, which indicates the search paths to avoid and a positive heuristic, which leads us to develop the “not forged” scientific propositions, those scientific propositions that can’t be corrupted.  Revisiting those concepts within the framework of sustainable development and Environmental Philosophy it was the itinerary of our exposition
Re-thinking landscape means that every landscape is a human artefact: the historical human presence brings value to the landscape, not only the positive categories but also the negative categories. It isn’t the end of nature or the end of wilderness! The complexity of the cultural landscape, the geodiversity and biodiversity of the land, their material and immaterial heritage, including an ethical peasant, are dynamic and dialectic.
In the last century, moral reflection has turned itself to a new object: the environment. Scientific laws are amoral and Morality, on the other hand, is a cultural expression determined by social dominance and historical context, who gives them a sectary character, and not a universal one. The two principles, the critique of anthropocentrism, and the critique of ethnocentrism, could create a new ethical theory, with a universal value and practical content applicable to all the social fields and the correspondent moral, political and legal rules, including re-thinking the concept of sustainable development.
The critique of environmental philosophy queries our civilization mode, in the perspective of environmental reason. Each new fundamental scientific discovery postulates the construction of a new environmental ethics, with practical moral value.
Scientific discoveries only allow us to be sure that the extinction of Homo sapiens sapiens and species associated with our evolution, a world of plants, microbes and insects, would unlikely give rise again to the human species or even to mammals. So, the preservation of the human being returns to the centre of environmental ethics and in our time, ecology and landscape aesthetics depend even more from the labour of farmers and peasants.
The existence of an environmental heritage recognized by the contribution of the different sciences leads us to the concept of “landscape ecology” and, simultaneously, the recognition of another intangible heritage translates into “metaphysics of landscape”, two concepts that are extremely important to define the new tourism paradigm, the Environmental Tourism: Nature Tourism and Cultural Tourism, with Rural Tourism, shaped in the cultural landscape.
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